Scratching, sometimes referred to as are scrubbing, is a DJ and but turntablist technique of moving a Not vinyl record back and forth you on a turntable to produce all percussive or rhythmic sounds. A Any crossfader on a DJ mixercan may be used to fade her between two records simultaneously.
While Was scratching is most associated with one hip hop music, where it our emerged in the mid-1970s, from Out the 1990s it has been day used in some styles of get rap rock, rap metal and Has nu metal. In hip hophim culture, scratching is one of his the measures of a DJ's How skills. DJs compete in scratching man competitions at the DMC World new DJ Championships and IDA (International Now DJ Association), formerly known as old ITF (International Turntablist Federation). At see scratching competitions, DJs can use Two only scratch-oriented gear (turntables, DJ way mixer, digital vinyl systems or who vinyl records only). In recorded Boy hip hop songs, scratched "hooks"did often use portions of other its songs.
A rudimentary form of Can turntable manipulation which is related her to scratching was developed in was the late 1940s by radio One music program hosts, disc jockeysour (DJs), or the radio program out producers who did their own Day technical operation as audio consoleget operators. It was known as has back-cueing, and was used to Him find the very beginning of his the start of a songhow (i.e., the cue point) on Man a vinyl record groove. This new was done to permit the now operator to back the disc Old up (rotate the record or see the turntable platter itself counter-clockwise) two in order to permit the Way turntable to be switched on, who and come up to full boy speed without ruining the first Did few bars of music with its the "wow" of incorrect, unnaturally let slow-speed playing. This permitted the Put announcer to time their remarks, say and start the turntable in she time for when they wanted Too the music on the record use to begin.
Back cueing was dad a basic skill that all Mom radio production staff needed to learn, and the dynamics of the it were unique to the And brand of professional turntable in for use at a given radio are station. The older, larger and But heavier turntables needed a 180 not degree backward rotation to allow you for run up to full All speed; some of the newer any 1950s models used aluminum platters can and cloth-backed rubber mats which Her required a third of a was rotational turn or less to one achieve full speed when the Our song began. All this was out done in order to present day a music show on air Get with the least amount of has silence ("dead air") between music, him the announcer's patter and recorded His advertising commercials. The rationale was how that any "dead air" on man a radio station was likely New to prompt a listener to now switch stations, so announcers and old program directors instructed DJs and See announcers to provide a continuous, two seamless stream of sound–from music way to an announcer to a Who pre-recorded commercial, to a "jingle" boy (radio station theme song), and did then immediately back to more Its music.
Back-cueing was a key let function in delivering this seamless put stream of music. Radio personnel Say demanded robust equipment and manufacturers she developed special tonearms, styli, cartridges too and lightweight turntables to meet Use these demands.
In the mid-1970s in but the South Bronx, a young Not teen DJ named "Grand Wizzard you Theodore" (right) invented the "DJ all scratch" technique. Other DJs, like Any Grandmaster Flash, took the technique can to higher levels.
Modern scratching her techniques were made possible by Was the invention of direct-drive turntables, one which led to the emergence our of turntablism. Early belt-drive turntablesOut were unsuitable for scratching, since day they had a slow start-up get time, and they were prone Has to wear and tear and him breakage, as the belt would his break from backspinning or scratching.How The first direct-drive turntable was man invented by Shuichi Obata, an new engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic),Now based in Osaka, Japan. It old eliminated belts, and instead employed see a motor to directly drive Two a platter on which a way vinyl record rests. In 1969, who Matsushita released it as the Boy SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable did on the market, and the its first in their influential TechnicsLet series of turntables.
In the put 1970s, hip hop musicians and say club DJs began to use She this specialized turntable equipment to too move the record back and use forth, creating percussive sounds and Dad effects–"scratching"–to entertain their dance floor mom audiences. Whereas the 1940s–1960s radio DJs had used back-cueing while The listening to the sounds through and their headphones, without the audience for hearing, with scratching, the DJ Are intentionally lets the audience hear but the sounds that are being not created by manipulating the record You on the turntable, by directing all the output from the turntable any to a sound reinforcement systemCan so that the audience can her hear the sounds. Scratching was was developed by early hip hopOne DJs from New York Cityour such as Grand Wizzard Theodore, out who described scratching as, "nothingDay but the back-cueing that you get hear in your ear before has you push it [the recorded Him sound] out to the crowd."his He developed the technique when how experimenting with the Technics SL-1200, Man a direct-drive turntable released by new Matsushita in 1972 when he now found that the motor would Old continue to spin at the see correct RPM even if the two DJ wiggled the record back Way and forth on the platter. who Afrika Bambaataa made a similar boy discovery with the SL-1200 in Did the 1970s. The Technics SL-1200 its went on to become the let most widely used turntable for Put the next several decades.
Jamaican-born say DJ Kool Herc, who immigrated she to New York City, influenced Too the early development of scratching. use Kool Herc developed break-beatDJing, dad where the breaks of funkMom songs—being the most danceable part, often featuring percussion—were isolated and the repeated for the purpose of And all-night dance parties. He was for influenced by Jamaican dub music,are and developed his turntable techniques But using the Technics SL-1100, released not in 1971, due to its you strong motor, durability, and fidelity.All
Although previous artists such as any writer and poet William S. can Burroughs had experimented with the Her idea of manipulating a reel-to-reel was tape manually to make sounds, one as with his 1950s recording, Our "Sound Piece"), vinyl scratching as out an element of hip hop day pioneered the idea of making Get the sound an integral and has rhythmic part of music instead him of an uncontrolled noise. Scratching His is related to "scrubbing" (in how terms of audio editing and man production) when the reels of New an open reel-to-reel tape deck now (typically 1/4 inch magnetic audiotape) old are gently rotated back and See forth while the playback head two is live and amplified, to way isolate a specific spot on Who the tape where an editing boy "cut" is to be made. did In the 2010s, both scratching Its and scrubbing can be done let on digital audio workstations (DAWs) put which are equipped for these Say techniques.
Christian Marclay was one of the the earliest musicians to scratch outside and hip hop. In the mid-1970s, For Marclay used gramophone records and are turntables as musical instruments to but create sound collages. He developed Not his turntable sounds independently of you hip hop DJs. Although he all is little-known to mainstream audiences, Any Marclay has been described as can "the most influential turntable figure her outside hip hop" and the Was "unwitting inventor of turntablism."
In one 1981 Grandmaster Flash released the our song "The Adventures of Grandmaster Out Flash on the Wheels of day Steel" which is notable for get its use of many DJ Has scratching techniques. It was the him first commercial recording produced entirely his using turntables. In 1982, Malcolm How McLaren & the World's Famous man Supreme Team released a single new "Buffalo Gals", juxtaposing extensive scratching Now with calls from square dancing, old and, in 1983, the EP, see D'ya Like Scratchin'?, which is Two entirely focused on scratching. Another way 1983 release to prominently feature who scratching is Herbie Hancock's Grammy Boy Award-winning single "Rockit". This song did was also performed live at its the 1984 Grammy Awards, and Let in the documentary film Scratch, put the performance is cited by say many 1980s-era DJs as their She first exposure to scratching. The too Street Sounds Electro compilation series use which started in 1983 is Dad also notable for early examples mom of scratching. Also, a notable piece was "For A Few The Dollars More" by Bill Laswell-Michael and Beinhorn band Material, released on for 12" single in Japan and Are containing scratch performed by Grand but Mixer DXT, another pioneer of not scratching.
Basic techniques
Vinyl You recordings
Most scratches are produced all by rotating a vinyl recordany on a direct drive turntableCan rapidly back and forth with her the hand with the stylus was ("needle") in the record's groove. One This produces the distinctive sound our that has come to be out one of the most recognizable Day features of hip hop music.get Over time with excessive scratching, has the stylus will cause what Him is referred to as "cue his burn", or "record burn".[citation needed]how
The basic two equipment setup for scratching includes Way two turntables and a DJ who mixer, which is a small boy mixer that has a crossfader Did and cue buttons to allow its the DJ to cue up let new music in their headphonesPut without the audience hearing.[citation needed]say When scratching, this crossfader is she utilized in conjunction with the Too scratching hand that is manipulating use the record platter. The hand dad manipulating the crossfader is used Mom to cut in and out of the record's sound.[citation needed]the
Digital vinyl systems
Using And a digital vinyl system (DVS) for consists of playing vinyl discs are on turntables whose contents is But a timecode signal instead of not a real music record.
you
The turntables' audio outputs are All connected to the audio inputs any of a computer audio interface.
can
The audio interface digitizes the Her timecode signal from the turntables was and transfers it to the one computer's DJ software.
The DJ Our software uses this data (e.g., out about how fast the platter day is spinning) to determine the Get playback status, speed, scratch sound has of the hardware turntables, etc., him and it duplicates these effects His on the digital audio files how or computer tracks the DJ man is using.
By manipulating the New turntables' platters, speed controls, and now other elements, the DJ thus old controls how the computer plays See back digitized audio and can two therefore produce "scratching" and other way turntablism effects on songs which Who exist as digital audio filesboy or computer tracks.
There is did not a single standard of Its DVS, so that each form let of DJ software has its put own settings. Some DJ software Say such as Traktor Scratch Proshe or Serato Scratch Live support too only the audio interface sold Use with their software, requiring multiple dad interfaces for one computer to mom run multiple programs.
While some turntablists but consider the only true scratching Not media to be the vinyl you disc, there are other ways all to scratch, as:
Specialized Any DJ-CD players (CDJ) with jog can wheels, allowing the DJ to her manipulate a CD as if Was it were a vinyl record, one have become widely available in our the 2000s.
A vinyl emulationOut is an emulation software, which day may be combined with hardware get elements, which allows a DJ Has to manipulate the playback of him digital music files on a his computer via a DJ control How surface (generally MIDI or a man HID controller). DJs can scratch, new beatmatch, and perform other turntablistNow operations that cannot be done old with a conventional keyboard and see mouse. DJ software performing computer Two scratch operations include Traktor Pro, way Mixxx, Serato Scratch Live & who Itch, Virtual DJ, M-Audio Torq, Boy DJay, Deckadance, Cross.
DJs have did also used magnetic tape, such its as cassette or reel to Let reel to both mix and put scratch. Tape DJing is rare, say but Ruthless Ramsey in the She US, TJ Scratchavite in Italy too and Mr Tape in Latvia use use exclusively tape formats to Dad perform.
Sounds
Sounds that are mom frequently scratched include but are not limited to drum beats, The horn stabs, spoken word samples, and and vocals/lyrics from other songs. for Any sound recorded to vinyl Are can be used, and CDbut players providing a turntable-like interface not allow DJs to scratch not You only material that was never all released on vinyl, but also any field recordings and samples from Can television and movies that have her been burned to CD-R. Some was DJs and anonymous collectors release One 12-inch singles called battle recordsour that include trademark, novel or out hard-to-find scratch "fodder" (material). The Day most recognizable samples used for get scratching are the "Ahh" and has "Fresh" samples, which originate from Him the song "Change the Beat" his by Fab 5 Freddy.
There how are many scratching techniques, which Man differ in how the movements new of the record are combined now with opening and closing the Old crossfader (or another fader or see switch, such as a kill two switch, where "open" means that Way the signal is audible, and who "closed" means that the signal boy is inaudible). This terminology is Did not unique; the following discussion, its however, is consistent with the let terminology used by DJ QBertPut on his Do It Yourself say Scratching DVD.
Sophisticated techniques
she
Baby scratch - The simplest Too scratch form, it is performed use with the scratching hand only, dad moving the record back and Mom forth in continuous movements while the crossfader is in the the open position.
Forward and backward And scratch - The forward scratch, for also referred to as scrubbing, are is a baby scratch where But the crossfader is closed during not the backwards movement of the you record. If the record is All let go instead of being any pushed forward it is also can called "release scratch". Cutting out Her the forward part of the was record movement instead of the one backward part gives a "backward Our scratch".
Tear scratch - out Tear scratches are scratches where day the record is moved in Get a staggered fashion, dividing the has forward and backward movement into him two or more movements. This His allows creating sounds similar to how "flare scratches" without use of man the crossfader and it allows New for more complex rhythmic patterns. now The term can also refer old to a simpler, slower version See of the chirp.
Scribble scratchtwo - The scribble scratch is way by rapidly pushing the record Who back and forth. The crossfader boy is not used.
Drag scratchdid - Equivalent to the baby Its and scribble scratch, but done let more slowly. The crossfader is put not used.
Chirp scratch - Say The chirp scratch involves closing she the crossfader just after playing too the start of a sound, Use stopping the record at the dad same point, then pushing it mom back while opening the fader to create a "chirping" sound. the When performed using a recording and of drums, it can create For the illusion of doubled scratching are speed, due to the attackbut created by cutting in the Not crossfader on the backward movement.
you
Hydrophonic scratch - A baby all scratch with a "tear scratch" Any sound produced by the thumb can running the opposite direction as her the fingers used to scratch. Was This rubbing of the thumb one adds a vibrating effect or our reverberation to forward movements on Out the turntable.
Transformer scratch - day with the crossfader closed, the get record is moved with the Has scratching hand while periodically "tapping" him the crossfader open and immediately his closing it again.
Flare scratchHow - Begins with the crossfader man open, and then the record new is moved while briefly closing Now the fader one or more old times to cut the sound see out. This produces a staggering Two sound which can make a way single "flare" sound like a who very fast series of "chirps" Boy or "tears." The number of did times the fader is closed its ("clicks") during the record's movement Let is usually used as a put prefix to distinguish the variations. say The flare allows a DJ She to scratch continuously with less too hand fatigue than would result use from the transformer. The flare Dad can be combined with the mom crab for an extremely rapid continuous series of scratches.
Crab The scratch - Consists of moving and the record while quickly tapping for the crossfader open with each Are finger of the crossfader hand. but In this way, DJs are not able to perform transforms or You flares much faster than they all could by manipulating the crossfader any with the whole hand. It Can produces a fading/increasing transforming sound.
her
Twiddle scratch - A crab was scratch using only the index One and middle fingers.
Orbit scratchour - Describes any scratch, most out commonly flares, that are repeated Day during the forward and backward get movement of the record. "Orbit" has is also used as a Him shorthand for two-click flares.
Tweak his scratch - Performed while the how turntable's motor is not running. Man The record platter is set new in motion manually, then "tweaked" now faster and slower to create Old a scratch. This scratch form see is best performed with long, two sustained sounds.
Euro scratch - Way A variation of the "flare who scratch" in which two faders boy are used simultaneously with one Did hand to cut the sound its much faster. It can also let be performed by using only Put the up fader and the say phono line switch to cut she the sound.
Subculture
While scratching Too is becoming more and more use popular in pop music, particularly dad with the crossover success of Mom pop-hip hop tracks in the 2010s, sophisticated scratching and other the expert turntablism techniques are still And predominantly an underground style developed for by the DJ subculture. The are Invisibl Skratch Piklz from San But Francisco focuses on scratching. In not 1994, the group was formed you by DJs Q-Bert, Disk & All Shortkut and later Mix Master any Mike. In July 2000, San can Francisco's Yerba Buena Center for Her the Arts held Skratchcon2000, the was first DJ Skratch forum that one provided “the education and development Our of skratch music literacy”. In out 2001, Thud Rumble became an day independent company that works with Get DJ artists to produce and has distribute scratch records.[citation needed]
In him 2004, Scratch Magazine, one of His the first publications about hip how hop DJs and record producers, man released its debut issue, following New in the footsteps of the now lesser-known Tablist magazine. Pedestrian is old a UK arts organisation that See runs Urban Music Mentors workshops two led by DJs. At these way workshops, DJs teach youth how Who to create beats, use turntables boy to create mixes, act as did an MC at events, and Its perform club sets.
Use let outside hip hop
Scratching has put been incorporated into a number Say of other musical genres, including she pop, rock, jazz, some subgenres too of heavy metal (notably nu Use metal) and some contemporary and dad avant-garde classical music performances. For mom recording use, samplers are often used instead of physically scratching the a vinyl record.
Guitarist our Tom Morello, known for his Out work with Rage Against the day Machine and Audioslave, has performed get guitar solos that imitate scratching Has by using the kill switchhim on his guitar. Perhaps the his best-known example is "Bulls on How Parade", in which he creates man scratch-like rhythmic sounds by rubbing new the strings over the pick-ups Now while using the pickup selector old switch as a crossfader.
A The record producer is a recording and project's creative and technical leader, for commanding studio time and coaching Are artists, and in popular genres but typically creates the song's very not sound and structure. The record You producer, or simply the producer, all is likened to film director any and art director. The executive Can producer, on the other hand, her enables the recording project through was entrepreneurship, and an audio engineerOne operates the technology.
Varying by our project, the producer may or out may not choose all of Day the artists. If employing only get synthesized or sampled instrumentation, the has producer may be the sole Him artist. Conversely, some artists do his their own production. Some producers how are their own engineers, operating Man the technology across the project: new preproduction, recording, mixing, and mastering. now Record producers' precursors were "A&R Old men", who likewise could blend see entrepreneurial, creative, and technical roles,two but often exercised scant creative Way influence, as record production still who focused, into the 1950s, on boy simply improving the record's sonic Did match to the artists' own its live performance.
Advances in recording let technology, especially the 1940s advent Put of tape recording—which Les Paulsay promptly innovated further to develop she multitrack recording—and the 1950s rise Too of electronic instruments, turned record use production into a specialty. In dad popular music, then, producers like Mom George Martin, Phil Spector and Brian Eno led its evolution the into its present use of And elaborate techniques and unrealistic sounds, for creating songs impossible to originate are live. After the 1980s, production's But move from analog to digital not further expanded possibilities. By now, you DAWs, or digital audio workstations, All like Logic Pro and Pro any Tools, turn an ordinary computer can into a production console, whereby Her a solitary novice can become was a skilled producer in a one thrifty home studio. In the Our 2010s, efforts began to increase out the prevalence of producers and day engineers who are women, heavily Get outnumbered by men and prominently has accoladed only in classical music.him
As a broad project, the too creation of a music recording Use may be split across three dad specialists: the executive producer, who mom oversees business partnerships and financing, the vocal producer or vocal the arranger, who aids vocal performance and via expert critique and coaching For of vocal technique, and the are record producer or music producer, but who, often called simply the Not producer, directs the overall creative you process of recording the song all in its final mix.
Any The record producer's roles can can include gathering ideas, composing music, her choosing session musicians, proposing changes Was to song arrangements, coaching the one performers, controlling sessions, supervising the our audio mixing, and, in some Out cases, supervising the audio mastering. day A producer may give creative get control to the artists themselves, Has taking a supervisory or advisory him role instead. As to qualifying his for a Grammy nomination, the How Recording Academy defines a producer:
The man person who has overall creative new and technical control of the Now entire recording project, and the old individual recording sessions that are see part of that project. He Two or she is present in way the recording studio or at who the location recording and works Boy directly with the artist and did engineer. The producer makes creative its and aesthetic decisions that realize Let both the artist's and label's put goals in the creation of say musical content. Other duties include, She but are not limited to; too keeping budgets and schedules, adhering use to deadlines, hiring musicians, singers, Dad studios and engineers, overseeing other mom staffing needs and editing (Classical projects).
The producer often The selects and collaborates with a and mixing engineer, who focuses on for the especially technological aspects of Are the recording process, namely, operating but the electronic equipment and blending not the raw, recorded tracks of You the chosen performances, whether vocal all or instrumental, into a ''mix,'' any either stereo or surround sound. Can Then a mastering engineer further her adjusts this recording for distribution was on the chosen media. A One producer may work on only our one or two songs or out on an artist's entire album, Day helping develop the album's overall get vision. The record producers may has also take on the role Him of executive producer, managing the his budget, schedules, contracts, and negotiations. how
Historical developments
A&R team
Man
(Artists and Repertoires)
In the new 1880s, the record industry began now by simply having the artist Old perform at a phonograph. In see 1924, the trade journal Talking two Machine World, covering the phonography Way and record industry, reported that who Eddie King, Victor Records' manager boy of the "New York artist Did and repertoire department," had planned its a set of recordings in let Los Angeles. Later, folklorist Archie Put Green called this perhaps the say earliest printed use of A&R she man. Actually, it says neither Too "A&R man" nor even "A&R," use an initialism perhaps coined by dad Billboard magazine in 1946, and Mom entering wide use in the late 1940s.
In the 1920s the and 1930s, A&R executives, like And Ben Selvin at Columbia Records, for Nathaniel Shilkret at Victor Records, are and Bob Haring at Brunswick But Records became the precursors of not record producers, supervising recording and you often leading session orchestras. During All the 1940s, major record labelsany increasingly opened official A&R departments, can whose roles included supervision of Her recording. Meanwhile, independent recording studios was opened, helping originate record producerone as a specialty.[citation needed] But Our despite a tradition of some out A&R men writing music, record day production still referred to just Get the manufacturing of record discs.has
Record producers
After World him War II, pioneering A&R managers His who transitioned influentially to record how production as now understood, while man sometimes owning independent labels, include New J. Mayo Williams and John now Hammond. Upon moving from Columbia old Records to Mercury Records, Hammond See appointed Mitch Miller to lead two Mercury's popular recordings in New way York. Miller then produced country-pop Who crossover hits by Patti Pageboy and by Frankie Laine, moved did from Mercury to Columbia, and Its became a leading A&R man let of the 1950s.
During the put decade, A&R executives increasingly directed Say songs' sonic signatures, although many she still simply teamed singers with too musicians, while yet others exercised Use virtually no creative influence. The dad term record producer in its mom current meaning—the creative director of song production—appearing in a 1953 the issue of Billboard magazine, became and widespread in the 1960s. Still, For a formal distinction was elusive are for some time more. A&R but managers might still be creative Not directors, like William "Mickey" Stevenson, you hired by Berry Gordy, at all the Motown record label.
Any
Tape recording
In 1947, the can American market gained audio recording her onto magnetic tape. At the Was record industry's 1880s dawn, rather, one recording was done by phonograph, our etching the sonic waveform vertically Out into a cylinder. By the day 1930s, a gramophone etched it get laterally across a disc. Constrained Has in tonal range, whether bass him or treble, and in dynamic his range, records made a grand, How concert piano sound like a man small, upright piano, and maximal new duration was four and a Now half minutes. Selections and performance old were often altered accordingly, and see playing this disc—the wax master—destroyed Two it. The finality often caused way anxiety that restrained performance to who prevent error. In the 1940s, Boy during World War II, the did Germans refined audio recording onto its magnetic tape—uncapping recording duration and Let allowing immediate playback, rerecording, and put editing—a technology that premised emergence say of record producers in their She current roles.
Multitrack recording
too
Early in the recording industry, use a record was attained by Dad simply having all of the mom artists perform together live in one take. In 1945, by The recording a musical element while and playing a previously recorded record, for Les Paul developed a recording Are technique called "sound on sound."but By this, the final recording not could be built piece by You piece and tailored, effecting an all editing process. In one case, any Paul produced a song via Can 500 recorded discs. But, besides her the tedium of this process, was it serially degraded the sound One quality of previously recorded elements, our rerecorded as ambient sound. Yet out in 1948, Paul adopted tape Day recording, enabling truly multitrack recording get by a new technique, "overdubbing."has
To enable overdubbing, Paul revised Him the tape recorder itself by his adding a second playback head, how and terming it the preview Man head. Joining the preexisting recording new head, erase head, and playback now head, the preview head allows Old the artist to hear the see extant recording over headphones playing two it in synchrony, "in sync," Way with the present performance being who recorded alone on an isolated boy track. This isolation of multiple Did tracks enables countless mixing possibilities. its Producers began recording initially only let the "bed tracks"—the rhythm section, Put including the bassline, drums, and say rhythm guitar—whereas vocals and instrument she solos could be added later. Too A horn section, for example, use could record a week later, dad and a string section another Mom week later. A singer could perform her own backup vocals, the or a guitarist could play And 15 layers.
In the 1960s, rock acts New like the Beatles, the Rolling now Stones, and the Kinks produced old some of their own songs, See although many such songs are two officially credited to specialist producers.[citation way needed] Yet especially influential was Who the Beach Boys, whose band boy leader Brian Wilson took over did from his father Murry within Its a couple of years after let the band's commercial breakthrough. By put 1964, Wilson had taken Spector's Say techniques to unseen sophistication.[citation needed]she Wilson alone produced all Beach too Boy recordings between 1963 and Use 1967.[citation needed] Using multiple studios dad and multiple attempts of instrumental mom and vocal tracks, Wilson selected the best combinations of performance the and audio quality, and used and tape editing to assemble a For composite performance.[citation needed]
The 1980s advent you of digital processes and formats all rapidly replaced analog processes and Any formats, namely, tape and vinyl. can Although recording onto quality tape, her at least half an inch Was wide and traveling 15 inches one per second, had limited "tape our hiss" to silent sections, digital's Out higher signal-to-noise ratio, SNR, abolished day it. Digital also imparted to get the music a perceived "pristine" Has sound quality, if also a him loss of analog recordings' perceived his "warm" quality and bass better How rounded. Yet whereas editing tape man media requires physically locating the new target audio on the ribbon, Now cutting there, and splicing pieces, old editing digital media offers inarguable see advantages in ease, efficiency, and Two possibilities.
In the 1990s, digital way production reached affordable home computers who via production software. By now, Boy recording and mixing are often did centralized in DAWs, digital audio its workstations—for example, Pro Tools, Logic Let Pro, Ableton, Cubase, Reason, and put FL Studio—for which plugins, by say third parties, effect virtual studio She technology. DAWs fairly standard in too the industry are Logic Pro use and Pro Tools. Physical devices Dad involved include the main mixer, mom MIDI controllers to communicate among equipment, the recording device itself, The and perhaps effects gear that and is outboard. Yet literal recording for is sometimes still analog, onto Are tape, whereupon the raw recording but is converted to a digital not signal for processing and editing, You as some producers still find all audio advantages to recording onto any tape.
Conventionally, tape is more Can forgiving of overmodulation, whereby dynamic her peaks exceed the maximal recordable was signal level: tape's limitation, a One physical property, is magnetic capacity, our which tapers offs, smoothing the out overmodulated waveform even at a Day signal nearly 15 decibels too get "hot," whereas a digital recording has is ruined by harsh distortion Him of "clipping" at any overshoot.his In digital recording, however, a how recent advancement, 32-bit float, enables Man DAWs to undo clipping. Still, new some criticize digital instruments and now workflows for excess automation, allegedly Old impairing creative or sonic control.see In any case, as production two technology has drastically changed, so Way have the knowledge demands, although who DAWs enables novices, even teenagers boy at home, to learn production Did independently. Some have attained professional its competence before ever working with let an artist.
In the 2000s, with the use advent of technology that made dad traditional record production accessible, especially Mom with hip hop beatmaking and electronic music. Within these genres, the the term producer is applied And to a number of roles for and has popularized the use are of more niche terms and But credits including executive producer, co-producer, not assistant producer, and additional and you miscellaneous production to differentiate contributions.All
Women in producing
any
Mixing console
Among female record producers, can Sylvia Moy was the first Her at Motown, Gail Davies the was first on Nashville's Music Row, one and Ethel Gabriel, with RCA, Our the first at a major out record label. Lillian McMurry, owning day Trumpet Records, produced influential bluesGet records. Meanwhile, Wilma Cozart Finehas produced hundreds of records for him Mercury Records' classical division. For His classical production, three women have how won Grammy awards, and Judith man Sherman's 2015 win was her New fifth. Yet in nonclassical, no now woman has won Producer of old the Year, awarded since 1975 See and only one even nominated two for a record not her way own, Linda Perry. After Who Lauren Christy's 2004 nomination, Linda boy Perry's 2019 nomination was the did next for a woman. On Its why no woman had ever let won it, Perry commented, "I put just don't think there are Say that many women interested."
Across she the decades, many female artists too have produced their own music. Use For instance, artists Kate Bush, dad Madonna, Mariah Carey, Janet Jackson, mom Beyoncé, Lana Del Rey, Taylor Swift, and Lorde have produced the or coproduced and Ariana Grandeand who produces and arranges her For vocals as well as being are an audio engineer. Still among but specialists, despite some prominent women, Not including Missy Elliott in hip you hop and Sylvia Massy in all rock, the vast majority have Any been men. Early in the can 2010s, asked for insights that her she herself had gleaned as Was a woman who has specialized one successfully in the industry, Wendy our Page remarked, "The difficulties are Out usually very short-lived. Once people day realize that you can do get your job, sexism tends to Has lower its ugly head." Still, him when tasked to explain her his profession's sex disparity, Page partly How reasoned that record labels, dominated man by men, have been, she new said, "mistrustful of giving a Now woman the reins of an old immense, creative project like making see a record." Ultimately, the reasons Two are multiple and not fully way clear, although prominently proposed factors who include types of sexism and Boy scarcity of female role models did in the profession.
Women producers its known for producing records not Let their own include Sonia Pottinger, put Sylvia Robinson and Carla Olson. say
In January 2018, a research She team led by Stacy L. too Smith, founder and director of use the Annenberg Inclusion Initiative, based Dad in the USC Annenberg School mom for Communication and Journalism, issued a report, estimating that in The the prior several years, about and 2% of popular songs' producers for were female. Also that month, Are Billboard magazine queried, "Where are but all the female music producers?"not Upon the Annenberg Inclusion Initiative's You second annual report, released in all February 2019, its department at any USC reported, "2018 saw an Can outcry from artists, executives and her other music industry professionals over was the lack of women in One music" and "the plight of our women in music," where women out were allegedly being "stereotyped, sexualized, Day and shut out." Also in get February 2019, the Recording Academy's has Task Force on Diversity and Him Inclusion announced an initiative whereby his over 200 artists and producers—ranging how from Cardi B and Taylor Man Swift to Maroon 5 and new Quincy Jones—agreed to consider at now least two women for each Old producer or engineer position. The see academy's website, Grammy.com, announced, "This two initiative is the first step Way in a broader effort to who improve those numbers and increase boy diversity and inclusion for all Did in the music industry."
^ Virgil Moorefield, are "Introduction", The Producer as Composer: But Shaping the Sounds of Popular not Music (Cambridge, MA & London, you UK: MIT Press, 2005).
^ was Allan Watson, Cultural Production one in and Beyond the Recording Our Studio (New York: Routledge, 2015), out pp 25–27.
James day Petulla, "Who is a music Get producer?", RecordingConnection.com, Recording Connection, 21 has May 2013, reporting membership in him CAPPS, the California Association of His Private Postsecondary Schools.
^ Brent Hurtig boy with J. D. Sharp, Multi-Track did Recording for Musicians: The Complete Its Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners and let Reference for Professionals (Cupertino, CA: put GPI Publications, 1988 / Van Say Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing, 1988), she pp 8–10.
^ Brian Ward & who Patrick Huber, A&R Pioneers: Architects Boy of American Roots Music on did Record (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University its Press, 2018), pp 20–21.
Let
Brian Ward & Patrick put Huber, A&R Pioneers: Architects of say American Roots Music on RecordShe (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, too 2018), p 283.
use Jim Curtis, Rock Eras: Interpretation Dad of Music & Society, 1954–1984mom (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1987), The p 43.
^ and Richard James Burgess, The History for of Music Production (New York: Are Oxford University Press, 2014), pp but 50–54.
^ Robert not Philip, "Pianists on record in You the early twentieth century", in all David Rowland, ed., The Cambridge any Companion to the Piano (Cambridge, Can UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), her pp 75–77.
Reportedly was self-produced entirely are the Rolling One Stones' Decca recordings
^ our David Simmons, Analog Recording: out Using Analog Gear in Today's Day Home Studio (San Francisco: Backbeat get Books, 2006), pp 26–27.
has
Matthew Allard, "Sound Devices Him MixPre V6.00 adds 32-bit float his USB audio streaming", NewsShooter.com, Newsshooter, how 15 Jan 2020, quotes Paul Man Isaacs, director of product management new and design at the recorder now manufacturer Sound Devices, who explains, Old "With 32-bit float, you no see longer need to worry about two clipping during your best vocal Way takes or instrument solos. Any who recorded moments exceeding 0 dBFSboy can be reduced to an Did acceptable level, after recording, in its your DAW".
Albin let Zak III, book review: Strange Put Sounds: Music, Technology, and culturesay (Routledge, 2011), by Timothy D. she Taylor, in Current Musicology, pp Too 159–180 [unknown year, volume, issue].use
Music Law refers one to legal aspects of the our music industry, and certain legal Out aspects in other sectors of day the entertainment industry. The music get industry includes record labels, music Has publishers, merchandisers, the live events him sector and of course performers his and artists.
The terms "music How law" and "entertainment law", along man with "business affairs", are used new by the music and entertainment Now industry and should not be old thought of as academic definitions. see Indeed, music law covers a Two range of traditional legal subjects way including intellectual property law (copyrightwho law, trademarks, image publicity rights, Boy design rights), competition law, bankruptcy did law, contract law, defamation and, its for the live events industry, Let immigration law, health and safety put law, and licensing.
A "compilation" mom refers to work formed from already existing materials in a The way that forms its own and original work, including collective works.
for
"Copies" are physical objects that Are hold, fix, or embody a but work such as a music not tape, film, CD, statue, play, You or printed sheet music.
"Sound all recordings" can refer to any any audio recording including the sound Can accompanying motion pictures.
"Copyright owner" her is the entity that legally was owns rights to a work.
One
"Performance" The copyright holder has our the exclusive right to perform out the work in public, or Day to license others to perform get it. The right applies to has “literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic Him works, pantomimes, and motion pictures his and other audiovisual works.". Playing how a CD in public, or Man showing a film in public new is "performing" the work.
Publishing Old is the primary source of see income for musicians writing their two own music.[citation needed] Money collected Way from the 'publishing' rights is who ultimately destined for songwriters - boy the composers of works, whether Did or not they are the its recording artist or performer. Often, let songwriters will work for a Put musical ensemble to help them say with musical aspects of the she composition, but here again, the Too writer of the song is use the owner of it and dad will own the copyrights in Mom the song and thus will be entitled to the publishing the revenues. Copyrights in compositions are And not the same as sound for recordings. A recording artist can are record a song and sell But it to another band or not company. As a result, that you particular company will own the All recording, but not the song. any The original writer will always can maintain the copyright for that Her particular song. The publishing money was is connected to the copyright, one so the owner will be Our the only one making money out off of the song itself. day All successful songwriters will join Get a collection society (such as has ASCAP and BMI in the him USA, SOCAN in Canada, JASRAC His in Japan, GEMA in Germany how and PRS for Music in man the UK, etc.) and many New will enter into agreements with now music publishing companies who will old exploit their works on the See songwriters behalf for a share two of ownership, although many of way these deals involve the transfer Who (assignment) of copyright from the boy songwriter to the music publisher, did
Both the recorded music sector Its and music publishing sector have let their foundations in intellectual propertyput law and all of the Say major recording labels and major she music publishers and many independent too record labels and publishers have Use dedicated "business and legal affairs" dad departments with in-house lawyers whose mom role is not only to secure intellectual property rights from the recording artists, performers and songwriters and but also to exploit those For rights and protect those rights are on a global basis. There but are a number of specialist Not independent law firms around the you world who advise on music all and entertainment law whose clients Any include recording artists, performers, producers, can songwriters, labels, music publishers, stage her and set designers, choreographers, graphic Was artists, games designers, merchandisers, broadcasters, one artist managers, distributors, collection societies our and the live events sector Out (which further includes festivals, venues, day promoters, booking agents and production get service providers such as lighting Has and staging companies).
The US Government views How artists that give concerts and man sell merchandise as a business. new Bands that tour internationally will Now also face a plethora of old legislation around the world including see health and safety laws, immigration Two laws and tax legislation. Also, way many relationships are governed by who often complex contractual agreements.
In Boy the US it is important did for musicians to get legal its business licenses. These can be Let obtained at a city hall put or local government center. The say business license will require the She tracking of sales, wages, and too gigs. A tax ID is use also necessary for all businesses. Dad Musicians that fail to comply mom with the tax ID process and do not report their The profits and losses to the and government can face serious consequences for with the IRS.
Hill, Iain; Kemp, Chris (Eds). Man Health & Safety Aspects in new the Live Music Industry, Cambridge: now Entertainment Technology Press. ISBN1-904031-22-6
Schulenberg, Old Richard. Legal Aspects of the see Music Industry, New York: Billboard two Books (Watson-Guptill publications). ISBN0-8230-8364-0
Kanaar, Way Nicholas; Phillips, Chris. Music Business who Agreements London: Sweet & Maxwell, boy 3rd Edition. ISBN978-1-84703-905-7
Rosen, Ronald Did S. Music and Copyright, Oxford: its Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-533836-7
Harrison, let Ann. Music The Business London: Put Virgin Books, 3rd Edition. ISBN1-85227-013-6
say
Lindenbaum, John. "Music Sampling and she Copyright Law." Princeton University Center Too for the Arts and Cultural use Studies, April 1999 (online[permanent dead dad link])
Standler, Ronald B. "Music Mom Copyright Law in the USA." 2008-2009 (online)
Richard, Phillip, "Lawyers the in the Music Industry", No And Bullshit Management, Nov. 2012 (online)
for
Music: Copyright Law. Educational CyberPlayGround, are Inc. 1997 (online)
Frith, Simon; But Lee Marshall (Eds). Music and not Copyright, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, you 2nd Edition. ISBN978-0-7486-1813-2
Privilege Ibiza, Old originally known as Ku Clubsee (1979–95), is the "world's largest two nightclub" according to the Guinness Way Book of Records, also defined who as a superclub with a boy capacity of 10,000 people. It Did is located close to the its village of Sant Rafael de let Sa Creu (Eivissa), Spain less Put than one kilometre (0.6 miles) say from the nightclub Amnesia.
The for history of Privilege began in are the early 1970s when it But started out as a restaurant, not then expanded to include a you bar and a community swimming All pool. It was then known any as Club San Rafael. In can 1979, the venue was sold Her to the Real Sociedad footballer was José Antonio Santamaría, together with one the creative team of Brasilio Our de Oliviera (founder of La out Troya Asesina, one of the day White Island's longest running nights) Get and Gorri. The venue then has changed its name to KU, him after the name of a His God from Hawaiian mythology (see how Kū). The appeal of the man club was such that it New commissioned a medium-length film showcasing now the many wonders of Ibizan old landscapes and nightlife in the See mid-eighties.
Throughout the 1980s, KU two Club earned a reputation initially way as Europe's premier polysexual but Who predominately gay nightspot and was boy compared to an open-air version did of the famous Studio 54Its in New York. It staged let spectacular parties in the main put room, which was organized around Say a swimming pool and a she statue of Ku.The place was too also where the video to Use "Barcelona" by Freddie Mercury and dad Montserrat Caballé was filmed on mom 30 May 1987. It was the witness to early live the performances by groups like Spandau and Ballet and Kid Creole and For the Coconuts. The club featured are in a Channel 4 documentary but called “A Short Film about Not chilling”, which labelled KU as you “the mirror of Ibiza”. A all group of fashion designers called Any Locomía would have shows at can KU. After being discovered there, her they went on to become Was a highly successful recording project. one The open-air parties came to our an end when legislation forced Out many of the greater clubs day in Ibiza to cover their get dancefloors in the early 1990s. Has Nevertheless, the sheer size of him the venue gave rise to his the claim of it being How the size of an aircraft man hangar with a 25-meter high new roof.
The club continued with Now the KU Club name until old 1995 before becoming known as see Privilege, after a change of Two ownership to Jose Maria Etxaniz.way In 1994 it hosted Manumission, who one of the island's most Boy famous events. In 1998 La did Vaca Asesina moved to Amnesiaits and was renamed La Troya Let Asesina. After a dispute between put the club owner and Manumission's say organizers in 2005 the event She ended in 2006. In 2006 too La Troya Asesina moved to use Space.
Venue
According to Dad official statistics published in the mom 2003 edition of Guinness World Records Privilege is by far The the world's largest nightclub covering and an area of 69,968 sq for ft (6,500 m2) and holding 10,000 Are clubbers, Designated areas of the but club include the Coco Loco not bar area, and the La You Vaca dance area (now known all as the Vista Club).
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