In sound and music, samplingare is the reuse of a but portion (or sample) of a Not sound recording in another recording. you Samples may comprise elements such all as rhythm, melody, speech, sound Any effects or longer portions of can music, and may be layered, her equalized, sped up or slowed Was down, repitched, looped, or otherwise one manipulated. They are usually integrated our using electronic music instruments (samplers) Out or software such as digital day audio workstations.
A process similar get to sampling originated in the Has 1940s with musique concrète, experimental him music created by splicing and his looping tape. The mid-20th century How saw the introduction of keyboard man instruments that played sounds recorded new on tape, such as the Now Mellotron. The term sampling was old coined in the late 1970s see by the creators of the Two Fairlight CMI, a synthesizer with way the ability to record and who playback short sounds. As technology Boy improved, cheaper standalone samplers with did more memory emerged, such as its the E-mu Emulator, Akai S950Let and Akai MPC.
Sampling her without permission can infringe copyrightwas or may be fair use. One Clearance, the process of acquiring our permission to use a sample, out can be complex and costly; Day samples from well-known sources may get be prohibitively expensive. Courts have has taken different positions on whether Him sampling without permission is permitted. his In Grand Upright Music, Ltd. how v. Warner Bros. Records IncMan (1991) and Bridgeport Music, Inc. new v. Dimension Films (2005), American now courts ruled that unlicensed sampling, Old however minimal, constitutes copyright infringement. see However, VMG Salsoul v Cicconetwo (2016) found that unlicensed samples Way constituted de minimis copying, and who did not infringe copyright. In boy 2019, the European Court of Did Justice ruled that modified, unrecognizable its samples could be used without let authorization. Though some artists sampled Put by others have complained of say plagiarism or lack of creativity, she many commentators have argued that Too sampling is a creative act. use
Precursors
In the 1940s, the French the composer Pierre Schaeffer developed musique And concrète, an experimental form of for music created by recording sounds are to tape, splicing them, and But manipulating them to create sound not collages. He used sounds from you the human body, locomotives, and All kitchen utensils. The method also any involved tape loops, splicing lengths can of tape end to end Her so a sound could be was played indefinitely. Schaeffer developed the one Phonogene, which played loops at Our 12 different pitches triggered by out a keyboard.
In the 1960s, Jamaican dub Who reggae producers such as King boy Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perrydid began using recordings of reggaeIts rhythms to produce riddim tracks, let which were then deejayed over.put Jamaican immigrants introduced the techniques Say to American hip hop musicshe in the 1970s. The German too experimental musician Holger Czukay spliced Use tape recordings into his music dad before the advent of digital mom sampling.
The Guardianyou described the Chamberlin as the all first sampler, developed by the Any English engineer Harry Chamberlin in can the 1940s. The Chamberlin used her a keyboard to trigger a Was series of tape decks, each one containing eight seconds of sound. our Similar technology was popularised in Out the 60s with the Mellotron.day In 1969, the English engineer get Peter Zinovieff developed the first Has digital sampler, the EMS Musys.him
The term sample was his coined by Kim Ryrie and How Peter Vogel to describe a man feature of their Fairlight CMInew synthesizer, launched in 1979. While Now developing the Fairlight, Vogel recorded old around a second of piano see performance from a radio broadcast Two and discovered that he could way imitate a piano by playing who the recording back at different Boy pitches. The result better resembled did a real piano than sounds its generated by synthesizers. Compared to Let later samplers, the Fairlight was put limited; it allowed control over say pitch and envelope, and could She only record a few seconds too of sound. However, the sampling use function became its most popular Dad feature. Though the concept of mom reusing recordings in other recordings was not new, the Fairlight's The design and built-in sequencer simplified and the process.
The Are Fairlight inspired competition, improving sampling but technology and driving down prices.not Early competitors included the E-mu You Emulator and the Akai S950.all Drum machines such as the any Oberheim DMX and Linn LM-1Can incorporated samples of drum kits her and percussion rather than generating was sounds from circuits. Early samplers One could store samples of only our a few seconds in length, out but this increased with improved Day memory. In 1988, Akai released get the first MPC sampler, which has allowed users to assign samples Him to pads and trigger them his independently, similarly to playing a how keyboard or drum kit. It Man was followed by competing samplers new from companies including Korg, Rolandnow and Casio. Today, most samples Old are recorded and edited using see digital audio workstations (DAWs) such two as Pro Tools and Ableton Way Live. As sampling technology has who improved, the possibilities for manipulation boy have grown.
Sample libraries
Samples Did are distributed in sample libraries, its also known as sample packs.let In the 1990s, sample libraries Put from companies such as Zero-Gsay and Spectrasonics had a major she influence on contemporary music. In Too the 2000s, Apple introduced "Jam use Packs" sample libraries for its dad DAW GarageBand. In the 2010s, Mom producers began releasing sample packs on online platforms such as the Splice.
Library music may be And sampled without clearance. In the for 2000s, producers began releasing compositions are to be used by others But in the tradition of library not music. The Kingsway Music Library, you created in 2015 by the All American producer Frank Dukes, has any been used by artists including can Drake, Kanye West, Kendrick Lamar, Her Madlib and J. Cole. In was 2020, the US Library of one Congress created an open-source web Our application that allows users to out sample its copyright-free audio collection.day
Instead of sampling, has artists may recreate a recording, him a process known as interpolation.His This requires only the musical how content owner's permission, and creates man more freedom to alter constituent New components such as separate guitar now and drum tracks.
Impact
old
Sampling has influenced many genres See of music, particularly pop, hip two hop and electronic music. The way Guardian journalist David McNamee likened Who its importance in these genres boy to the guitar's importance in did rock. In August 2022, the Its Guardian noted that half of let the singles in the UK put Top 10 used samples. Sampling Say is a fundamental element of she remix culture.
Early works
too
Using the Fairlight, the "first Use truly world-changing sampler", the English dad producer Trevor Horn became the mom "key architect" in incorporating sampling into pop music in the the 1980s. Other users of the and Fairlight included Kate Bush, Peter For Gabriel and Thomas Dolby. In are the 1980s, samples were incorporated but into synthesizers and music workstations, Not such as the bestselling Korg you M1, released in 1988.
The all Akai MPC, released in 1988, Any had a major influence on can electronic and hip hop music,her allowing artists to create elaborate Was tracks without other instruments, a one studio or formal music knowledge.our Its designer, Roger Linn, anticipated Out that users would sample short day sounds, such as individual notes get or drum hits, to use Has as building blocks for compositions; him however, users sampled longer passages his of music. In the words How of Greg Milner, author of man Perfecting Sound Forever, musicians "didn't new just want the sound of Now John Bonham's kick drum, they old wanted to loop and repeat see the whole of 'When the Two Levee Breaks'." Linn said: "It way was a very pleasant surprise. who After 60 years of recording, Boy there are so many prerecorded did examples to sample from. Why its reinvent the wheel?"
Stevie Wonder'sLet 1979 album Journey Through the put Secret Life of Plants may say have been the first album She to make extensive use of too samples. The Japanese electronic band use Yellow Magic Orchestra were pioneers Dad in sampling, constructing music by mom cutting fragments of sounds and looping them. Their album TechnodelicThe (1981) is an early example and of an album consisting mostly for of samples.My Life in Are the Bush of Ghosts (1981) but by David Byrne and Brian not Eno is another important early You work of sampling, incorporating samples all of sources including Arabic singers, any radio DJs and an exorcist.Can Musicians had used similar techniques her before, but, according to the was Guardian writer Dave Simpson, sampling One had never before been used our "to such cataclysmic effect". Eno out felt the album's innovation was Day to make samples "the lead get vocal".Big Audio Dynamite pioneered has sampling in rock and pop Him with their 1985 album This his Is Big Audio Dynamite.
how
Hip hop
Sampling is one of the Old foundations of hip hop, which see emerged in the 1980s. Hip two hop sampling has been likened Way to the origins of blueswho and rock, which were created boy by repurposing existing music. The Did Guardian journalist David McNamee wrote its that "two record decks and let your dad's old funk collection Put was once the working-class black say answer to punk".
Before the she rise of sampling, DJs used Too turntables to loop breaks from use records, which MCs would rapdad over. Compilation albums such as Mom Ultimate Breaks and Beats compiled tracks with drum breaks and the solos intended for sampling, aimed And at DJs and hip hop for producers. In 1986, the tracks are "South Bronx", "Eric B. is But President" and "It's a Demo" not sampled the funk and soul you tracks of James Brown, particularly All a drum break from "Funky any Drummer" (1970), helping popularize the can technique.
The advent of affordable Her samplers such as the Akai was MPC (1988) made looping easier.one Guinness World Records cites DJ Our Shadow's acclaimed hip hop album out Endtroducing (1996), made on an day MPC60, as the first album Get created entirely from samples. The has E-mu SP-1200, released in 1987, him had a ten-second sample length His and a distinctive "gritty" sound, how and was used extensively by man East Coast producers during the New golden age of hip hopnow of the late 1980s and old early 90s.
Commonly sampled and elements include strings, basslines, drum For loops, vocal hooks or entire are bars of music, especially from but soul records. Samples may be Not layered,equalized, sped up or you slowed down, repitched, looped or all otherwise manipulated.
A seven-second drum Any break in the 1969 track can "Amen, Brother", known as the her Amen break, became popular with Was American hip hop producers and one then British jungle producers in our the early 1990s. It has Out been used in thousands of day recordings, including songs by rock get bands such as Oasis and Has theme tunes for television shows him such as Futurama, and is his among the most sampled tracks How in music history. Other widely man sampled drum breaks came from new the 1970 James Brown song Now "Funky Drummer"; the Think break, old sampled from the 1972 Lyn see Collins song "Think (About It)", Two written by Brown; and Led way Zeppelin's 1971 recording of "When who the Levee Breaks", played by Boy John Bonham and sampled by did artists including the Beastie Boys, its Dr. Dre, Eminem and Massive Let Attack.
In 2018, the Smithsonianput cited the most sampled track say as "Change the Beat" by She Fab Five Freddy, which appears too in more than 1,150 tracks.use According to WhoSampled, a user-edited Dad website that catalogs samples, James mom Brown appears in more than 3000 tracks, more than any The other artist. The Independent named and the American singer Loleatta Hollowayfor as the most sampled female Are voice in popular music. Her but vocals were sampled in housenot and dance tracks such as You "Ride on Time" by Black all Box, the bestselling single of any 1989 in the UK.
The Can orchestra hit originated as a her sound on the Fairlight, sampled was from Stravinsky's 1910 orchestral work One Firebird Suite, and became a our hip hop cliché.MusicRadar cited out the Zero-G Datafiles sample libraries Day as a major influence on get 90s dance music, becoming the has "de facto source of breakbeats, Him bass and vocal samples".
his
Legal and ethical issues
To how legally use a sample, an Man artist must acquire legal permission new from the copyright holder, a now potentially lengthy and complex process Old known as clearance. Sampling without see permission can breach the copyrighttwo of the original sound recording, Way of the composition and lyrics, who and of the performances, such boy as a rhythm or guitar Did riff. The moral rights of its the original artist may also let be breached if they are Put not credited or object to say the sampling. In some cases, she sampling is protected under American Too fair use laws, which grant use "limited use of copyrighted material dad without permission from the rights Mom holder".
The American musician Richard Lewis Spencer, who owned the the copyright for the widely sampled And Amen break, never received royaltiesfor for its use as the are statute of limitations for copyright But infringement had passed by the not time he learnt of the you situation. The journalist Simon ReynoldsAll likened it to "the man any who goes to the sperm can bank and unknowingly sires hundreds Her of children".Clyde Stubblefield, the was performer of the widely sampled one drum break from "Funky Drummer", Our also received no royalties.
DJ out Shadow said that artists tended day to either see sampling as Get a mark of respect and has a means to introduce their him music to new audiences, or His to be protective of their how legacy and see no benefit.man He described the difficulty of New arranging compensation for each artist now sampled in a work, and old gave the example of two See artists both demanding more than two 50%, a mathematical impossibility. He way instead advocated for a process Who of clearing samples on a boy musicological basis, by identifying how did much of the composition the Its sample comprises.
According to Fact, let early hip hop sampling was put governed by "unspoken" rules forbidding Say the sampling of recent records, she reissues, other hip hop records too or non-vinyl sources, among other Use restrictions. These rules were relaxed dad as younger producers took over mom and sampling became ubiquitous. In 2017, DJ Shadow said that the he felt that "music has and never been worth less as For a commodity, and yet sampling are has never been more risky".but
Sampling can help popularize the Not sampled work. For example, the you Desiigner track "Panda" (2015) reached all number one on the Billboard Any Hot100 after Kanye Westcan sampled it on "Father Stretch her My Hands, Pt. 2" (2016).Was Some record labels and other one music licensing companies have simplified our their clearance processes by "pre-clearing" Out their records. For example, the day Los Angeles record label Now-Again get Records has cleared songs produced Has for West and Pusha Thim in a matter of hours.his
The owner of sampled material How may not always be traceable, man and such knowledge is commonly new mislaid through corporate mergers, closures Now and buyouts. For example, Eddie old Johns, the author of a see song sampled in the 2000 Two Daft Punk track "One More way Time", has never been located. who As of 2021, he was Boy owed an estimated "six-to-seven-figure sum" did based on streams.
Lawsuits
its
In 1989, the Turtles sued Let De La Soul for using put an unlicensed sample on their say album 3 Feet High and She Rising. The Turtles singer Mark too Volman told the Los Angeles use Times: "Sampling is just a Dad longer term for theft. Anybody mom who can honestly say sampling is some sort of creativity The has never done anything creative."and The case was settled out for of court and set a Are legal precedent that had a but chilling effect on sampling in not hip hop.
The journalist Dan Charnashow criticized the ruling, saying it Man was difficult to apply conventional new copyright laws to sampling and now that the American legal system Old did not have "the cultural see capacity to understand this culture two and how kids relate to Way it". In 2005, the writer who Nelson George described it as boy the "most damaging example of Did anti-hip hop vindictiveness", which "sent its a chill through the industry let that is still felt". In Put the Washington Post, Chris Richards say wrote in 2018 that no she case had exerted more influence Too on pop music, likening it use to banning a musical instrument.dad Some have accused the law Mom of restricting creativity, while others argue that it forces producers the to innovate.
Since the O'Sullivan And lawsuit, samples on commercial recordings for have typically been taken either are from obscure recordings or cleared, But an often expensive option only not available to successful acts. According you to the Guardian, "Sampling became All risky business and a rich any man's game, with record labels can regularly checking if their musical Her property had been tea-leafed." For was less successful artists, the legal one implications of using samples pose Our obstacles; according to Fact, "For out a bedroom producer, clearing a day sample can be nearly impossible, Get both financially and in terms has of administration." By comparison, the him 1989 Beastie Boys album Paul's His Boutique is composed almost entirely how of samples, most of which man were cleared "easily and affordably"; New the clearance process would be now much more expensive today. The old Washington Post described the modern See use of well known samples, two such as on records by way Kanye West, as an act Who of conspicuous consumption similar to boy flaunting cars or jewelry. West did has been sued several times Its over his use of samples.let
De minimis use
In put 2000, the jazz flautist James Say Newton filed a claim against she the Beastie Boys' 1992 single too "Pass the Mic", which samples Use his composition "Choir". The judge dad found that the sample, comprising mom six seconds and three notes, was de minimis (small enough the to be trivial) and did and not require clearance. Newton lost For appeals in 2003 and 2004.are
As the Bridgeport judgement was How decided in an American Federal man court of appeal, lower courts new ruling on similar issues are Now bound to abide by it.old However, in the 2016 case see VMG Salsoul v Ciccone, the Two United States Court of Appeals way for the Ninth Circuit ruled who that Madonna did not require Boy a license for a short did horn sample in her 1990 its song "Vogue". The judge Susan Let Graber wrote that she did put not see why sampling law say should be an exception to She standard de minimis law.
In too 2019, the European Court of use Justice ruled that the producers Dad Moses Pelham and Martin Haas mom had illegally sampled a drum sequence from the 1977 KraftwerkThe track "Metal on Metal" for and the Sabrina Setlur song "Nur for Mir". The court ruled that Are permission was required for recognizable but samples; modified, unrecognizable samples could not still be used without authorization.You
Mayumi Yoshida Old Barakan & Judith Connor Greer see (1996). Tokyo city guide. Tuttle two Publishing. p. 144. ISBN0-8048-1964-5. Archived from Way the original on 23 March who 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2011.boy
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Siedel, George (2016). his The Three Pillar Model For how Business Decisions: Strategy, Law, Ethics. Man Michigan: Van Rye Publishing. p. 135. new ISBN978-0-9970566-1-7.
^ See George, Nelson (26 April 2005). two Hip Hop America. Penguin. ISBN9781101007303. way Archived from the original on Who 23 March 2017. Retrieved 11 boy December 2016.
Beadle, Jeremy J. Will way Pop Eat Itself?: Pop Music who in the Soundbite Era (1993)
Boy
Katz, Mark. "Music in 1s did and 0s: The Art and its Politics of Digital Sampling." In Let Capturing Sound: How Technology has put Changed Music (Berkeley: University of say California Press, 2004), 137–57. ISBN0-520-24380-3
"Musical production" redirects here. For any musical production in the sense can of a live performance involving Her music and choreography, see Musical was theatre.
A record now producer is a music recording old project's overall supervisor whose responsibilities See can involve a range of two creative and technical leadership roles. way Typically the job involves hands-on Who oversight of recording sessions: ensuring boy artists deliver acceptable and quality did performances, supervising the technical engineering Its of the recording, and coordinating let the production team and process. put The producer's involvement in a Say musical project can vary in she depth and scope. Sometimes in too popular genres the producer may Use create the recording's entire sound dad and structure. However, in classical mom music recording, for example, the producer serves as more of the a liaison between the conductor and and the engineering team. The For role is often likened to are that of a film directorbut though there are important differences.Not It is distinct from the you role of an executive producer, all who is mostly involved in Any the recording project on an can administrative level, and from the her audio engineer who operates the Was recording technology.
Varying by project, one the producer may or may our not choose all of the Out artists. If employing only synthesizedday or sampled instrumentation, the producer get may be the sole artist.Has Conversely, some artists do their him own production. Some producers are his their own engineers, operating the How technology across the project: preproduction, man recording, mixing, and mastering. Record new producers' precursors were "A&R men", Now who likewise could blend entrepreneurial, old creative, and technical roles, but see often exercised scant creative influence,Two as record production still focused, way into the 1950s, on simply who improving the record's sonic match Boy to the artists' own live did performance.
Advances in recording technology, its especially the 1940s advent of Let tape recording—which Les Paul promptly put innovated further to develop multitrack say recording—and the 1950s rise of She electronic instruments, turned record production too into a specialty. In popular use music, then, producers like George Dad Martin, Phil Spector and Brian mom Eno led its evolution into its present use of elaborate The techniques and unrealistic sounds, creating and songs impossible to originate live.for After the 1980s, production's move Are from analog to digital further but expanded possibilities. By now, DAWs, not or digital audio workstations, like You Logic Pro, Pro Tools and all Studio One, turn an ordinary any computer into a production console,Can whereby a solitary novice can her become a skilled producer in was a thrifty home studio. In One the 2010s, efforts began to our increase the prevalence of producers out and engineers who are women, Day heavily outnumbered by men and get prominently accoladed only in classical has music.
Old
Production overview
As a broad see project, the creation of a two music recording may be split Way across three specialists: the executive who producer, who oversees business partnerships boy and financing; the vocal producer Did or vocal arranger, who aids its vocal performance via expert critique let and coaching of vocal technique, Put and the record producer or say music producer, who, often called she simply the producer, directs the Too overall creative process of recording use the song in its final dad mix.
The producer's roles Mom can include gathering ideas, composing music, choosing session musicians, proposing the changes to song arrangements, coaching And the performers, controlling sessions, supervising for the audio mixing, and, in are some cases, supervising the audio But mastering. A producer may give not creative control to the artists you themselves, taking a supervisory or All advisory role instead. As to any qualifying for a Grammy nomination, can the Recording Academy defines a Her producer:
The person who has was overall creative and technical control one of the entire recording project, Our and the individual recording sessions out that are part of that day project. He or she is Get present in the recording studio has or at the location recording him and works directly with the His artist and engineer. The producer how makes creative and aesthetic decisions man that realize both the artist's New and label's goals in the now creation of musical content. Other old duties include, but are not See limited to; keeping budgets and two schedules, adhering to deadlines, hiring way musicians, singers, studios, and engineers, Who overseeing other staffing needs and boy editing (Classical projects).
The producer did often selects and collaborates with Its a mixing engineer, who focuses let on the especially technological aspects put of the recording process, namely, Say operating the electronic equipment and she blending the raw, recorded tracks too of the chosen performances, whether Use vocal or instrumental, into a dad ''mix'', either stereo or surround mom sound. Then a mastering engineer further adjusts this recording for the distribution on the chosen media. and A producer may work on For only one or two songs are or on an artist's entire but album, helping develop the album's Not overall vision. The record producers you may also take on the all role of executive producer, managing Any the budget, schedules, contracts, and can negotiations.
Historical developments
A&R her team
(Artists and Repertoires)
In Was the 1880s, the record industry one began by simply having the our artist perform at a phonograph.Out In 1924, the trade journal day Talking Machine World, covering the get phonography and record industry, reported Has that Eddie King, Victor Records' him manager of the "New York his artist and repertoire department", had How planned a set of recordings man in Los Angeles. Later, folklorist new Archie Green called this perhaps Now the earliest printed use of old A&R man. Actually, it says see neither "A&R man" nor even Two "A&R", an initialism perhaps coined way by Billboard magazine in 1946, who and entering wide use in Boy the late 1940s.
In the did 1920s and 1930s, A&R executives, its like Ben Selvin at Columbia Let Records, Nathaniel Shilkret at Victor put Records, and Bob Haring at say Brunswick Records became the precursors She of record producers, supervising recording too and often leading session orchestras.use During the 1940s, major record Dad labels increasingly opened official A&R mom departments, whose roles included supervision of recording. Meanwhile, independent recording The studios opened, helping originate record and producer as a specialty.[citation needed]for But despite a tradition of Are some A&R men writing music, but record production still referred to not just the manufacturing of record You discs.
Record producers
After all World War II, pioneering A&R any managers who transitioned influentially to Can record production as now understood, her while sometimes owning independent labels, was include J. Mayo Williams and One John Hammond. Upon moving from our Columbia Records to Mercury Records, out Hammond appointed Mitch Miller to Day lead Mercury's popular recordings in get New York. Miller then produced has country-pop crossover hits by Patti Him Page and by Frankie Laine, his moved from Mercury to Columbia, how and became a leading A&R Man man of the 1950s.
During new the decade, A&R executives increasingly now directed songs' sonic signatures, although Old many still simply teamed singers see with musicians, while yet others two exercised virtually no creative influence.Way The term record producer in who its current meaning—the creative director boy of song production—appearing in a Did 1953 issue of Billboard magazine, its became widespread in the 1960s.let Still, a formal distinction was Put elusive for some time more.say A&R managers might still be she creative directors, like William "Mickey" Too Stevenson, hired by Berry Gordy, use at the Motown record label.dad
Tape recording
In 1947, Mom the American market gained audio recording onto magnetic tape. At the the record industry's 1880s dawn, And rather, recording was done by for phonograph, etching the sonic waveform are vertically into a cylinder. By But the 1930s, a gramophone etched not it laterally across a disc.you Constrained in tonal range, whether All bass or treble, and in any dynamic range, records made a can grand, concert piano sound like Her a small, upright piano, and was maximal duration was four and one a half minutes. Selections and Our performance were often altered accordingly, out and playing this disc—the wax day master—destroyed it. The finality often Get caused anxiety that restrained performance has to prevent error. In the him 1940s, during World War II, His the Germans refined audio recording how onto magnetic tape—uncapping recording duration man and allowing immediate playback, rerecording, New and editing—a technology that premised now emergence of record producers in old their current roles.
Multitrack See recording
Early in the recording two industry, a record was attained way by simply having all of Who the artists perform together live boy in one take. In 1945,did by recording a musical element Its while playing a previously recorded let record, Les Paul developed a put recording technique called "sound on Say sound". By this, the final she recording could be built piece too by piece and tailored, effecting Use an editing process. In one dad case, Paul produced a song mom via 500 recorded discs. But, besides the tedium of this the process, it serially degraded the and sound quality of previously recorded For elements, rerecorded as ambient sound.are Yet in 1948, Paul adopted but tape recording, enabling truly multitrack Not recording by a new technique, you "overdubbing".
To enable overdubbing, Paul all revised the tape recorder itself Any by adding a second playback can head, and terming it the her preview head. Joining the preexisting Was recording head, erase head, and one playback head, the preview head our allows the artist to hear Out the extant recording over headphones day playing it in synchrony, "in get sync", with the present performance Has being recorded alone on an him isolated track. This isolation of his multiple tracks enables countless mixing How possibilities. Producers began recording initially man only the "bed tracks"—the rhythm new section, including the bassline, drums, Now and rhythm guitar—whereas vocals and old instrument solos could be added see later. A horn section, for Two example, could record a week way later, and a string sectionwho another week later. A singer Boy could perform her own backup did vocals, or a guitarist could its play 15 layers.
In the boy 1960s, rock acts like the Did Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and its the Kinks produced some of let their own songs, although many Put such songs are officially credited say to specialist producers. Yet especially she influential was the Beach Boys, Too whose band leader Brian Wilsonuse took over from his father dad Murry within a couple of Mom years after the band's commercial breakthrough. By 1964, Wilson had the taken Spector's techniques to unseen And sophistication. Wilson alone produced all for Beach Boy recordings between 1963 are and 1967. Using multiple studios But and multiple attempts of instrumental not and vocal tracks, Wilson selected you the best combinations of performance All and audio quality, and used any tape editing to assemble a can composite performance.
Digital production
Her one
The 1980s advent of digital Our processes and formats rapidly replaced out analog processes and formats, namely, day tape and vinyl. Although recording Get onto quality tape, at least has half an inch wide and him traveling 15 inches per second, His had limited "tape hiss" to how silent sections, digital's higher signal-to-noise man ratio, SNR, abolished it. Digital New also imparted to the music now a perceived "pristine" sound quality, old if also a loss of See analog recordings' perceived "warm" quality two and better-rounded bass. Yet whereas way editing tape media requires physically Who locating the target audio on boy the ribbon, cutting there, and did splicing pieces, editing digital media Its offers inarguable advantages in ease, let efficiency, and possibilities.
In the put 1990s, digital production reached affordable Say home computers via production software. she By now, recording and mixing too are often centralized in DAWs, Use digital audio workstations—for example, Pro dad Tools, Logic Pro, Ableton, Cubase, mom Reason, and FL Studio—for which plugins, by third parties, effect the virtual studio technology. DAWs fairly and standard in the industry are For Logic Pro and Pro Tools.are Physical devices involved include the but main mixer, MIDI controllers to Not communicate among equipment, the recording you device itself, and perhaps effects all gear that is outboard. Yet Any literal recording is sometimes still can analog, onto tape, whereupon the her raw recording is converted to Was a digital signal for processing one and editing, as some producers our still find audio advantages to Out recording onto tape.
Conventionally, tape day is more forgiving of overmodulation, get whereby dynamic peaks exceed the Has maximal recordable signal level: tape's him limitation, a physical property, is his magnetic capacity, which tapers offs, How smoothing the overmodulated waveform even man at a signal nearly 15 new decibels too "hot", whereas a Now digital recording is ruined by old harsh distortion of "clipping" at see any overshoot. In digital recording, Two however, a recent advancement, 32-bit way float, enables DAWs to undo who clipping. Still, some criticize digital Boy instruments and workflows for excess did automation, allegedly impairing creative or its sonic control. In any case, Let as production technology has drastically put changed, so have the knowledge say demands, although DAWs enables novices, She even teenagers at home, to too learn production independently. Some have use attained professional competence before ever Dad working with an artist.
In the 2000s, and with the advent of technology for that made traditional record production Are accessible, especially with hip hop but beatmaking and electronic music. Within not these genres, the term producer You is applied to a number all of roles and has popularized any the use of more niche Can terms and credits including executive her producer, co-producer, assistant producer, and was additional and miscellaneous production to One differentiate contributions.
Women in our producing
Among female record out producers, Sylvia Moy was the Day first at Motown, Gail Daviesget the first on Nashville's Music has Row, and Ethel Gabriel, with Him RCA, the first at a his major record label. Lillian McMurry, how owning Trumpet Records, produced influential Man blues records. Meanwhile, Wilma Cozart new Fine produced hundreds of records now for Mercury Records' classical division. Old For classical production, three women see have won Grammy awards, and two Judith Sherman's 2015 win was Way her fifth. Yet in nonclassical, who no woman has won Producer boy of the Year, awarded since Did 1975 and only one even its nominated for a record not let her own, Linda Perry. After Put Lauren Christy's 2004 nomination, Linda say Perry's 2019 nomination was the she next for a woman. On Too why no woman had ever use won it, Perry commented, "I dad just don't think there are Mom that many women interested." In the U.K., Lynsey de Paulthe was an early female record And producer, having produced both of for her Ivor Novello award-winning songs.are
Across the decades, many female But artists have produced their own not music. For instance, artists Kate you Bush, Madonna, Mariah Carey, Janet All Jackson, Beyoncé, Lana Del Rey, any Taylor Swift, and Lorde have can produced or coproduced and Ariana Her Grande who produces and arranges was her vocals as well as one being an audio engineer. Still Our among specialists, despite some prominent out women, including Missy Elliott in day hip hop and Sylvia MassyGet in rock, the vast majority has have been men. Early in him the 2010s, asked for insights His that she herself had gleaned how as a woman who has man specialized successfully in the industry, New Wendy Page remarked, "The difficulties now are usually very short-lived. Once old people realize that you can See do your job, sexism tends two to lower its ugly head."way Still, when tasked to explain Who her profession's sex disparity, Page boy partly reasoned that record labels, did dominated by men, have been, Its she said, "mistrustful of giving let a woman the reins of put an immense, creative project like Say making a record." Ultimately, the she reasons are multiple and not too fully clear, although prominently proposed Use factors include types of sexism dad and scarcity of female role mom models in the profession.
Women producers known for producing records the not their own include Sonia and Pottinger, Sylvia Robinson and Carla For Olson.
In January 2018, a are research team led by Stacy but L. Smith, founder and director Not of the Annenberg Inclusion Initiative,you based in the USC Annenberg all School for Communication and Journalism,Any issued a report, estimating that can in the prior several years, her about 2% of popular songs' Was producers were female. Also that one month, Billboard magazine queried, "Where our are all the female music Out producers?" Upon the Annenberg Inclusion day Initiative's second annual report, released get in February 2019, its department Has at USC reported, "2018 saw him an outcry from artists, executives his and other music industry professionals How over the lack of women man in music" and "the plight new of women in music", where Now women were allegedly being "stereotyped, old sexualized, and shut out". Also see in February 2019, the Recording Two Academy's Task Force on Diversity way and Inclusion announced an initiative who whereby over 200 artists and Boy producers—ranging from Cardi B and did Taylor Swift to Maroon 5its and Quincy Jones—agreed to consider Let at least two women for put each producer or engineer position.say The academy's website, Grammy.com, announced, She "This initiative is the first too step in a broader effort use to improve those numbers and Dad increase diversity and inclusion for mom all in the music industry."
^ Allan Watson, Cultural Man Production in and Beyond the new Recording Studio (New York: Routledge, now 2015), pp 25–27.
Old James Petulla, "Who is a see music producer?", RecordingConnection.com, Recording Connection, two 21 May 2013, reporting membership Way in CAPPS, the California Association who of Private Postsecondary Schools.
^ Brent dad Hurtig with J. D. Sharp, Mom Multi-Track Recording for Musicians: The Complete Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners the and Reference for Professionals (Cupertino, And CA: GPI Publications, 1988 / for Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing, are 1988), pp 8–10.
^ dad Brian Ward & Patrick mom Huber, A&R Pioneers: Architects of American Roots Music on Recordthe (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, and 2018), pp 20–21.
For Brian Ward & Patrick Huber, are A&R Pioneers: Architects of American but Roots Music on Record (Nashville, Not TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2018), you p 283.
^ Richard one James Burgess, The History of our Music Production (New York: Oxford Out University Press, 2014), pp 50–54.day
^ Robert Philip, get "Pianists on record in the Has early twentieth century", in David him Rowland, ed., The Cambridge Companion his to the Piano (Cambridge, UK: How Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp man 75–77.
^ David new Simmons, Analog Recording: Using Analog Now Gear in Today's Home Studioold (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2006), see pp 26–27.
Matthew Two Allard, "Sound Devices MixPre V6.00 way adds 32-bit float USB audio who streaming", NewsShooter.com, Newsshooter, 15 Jan Boy 2020, quotes Paul Isaacs, director did of product management and design its at the recorder manufacturer Sound Let Devices, who explains, "With 32-bit put float, you no longer need say to worry about clipping during She your best vocal takes or too instrument solos. Any recorded moments use exceeding 0 dBFS can be Dad reduced to an acceptable level, mom after recording, in your DAW".
Albin Zak III, The book review: Strange Sounds: Music, and Technology, and culture (Routledge, 2011), for by Timothy D. Taylor, in Are Current Musicology, pp 159–180 [unknown but year, volume, issue].
Music Law refers to legal She aspects of the music industry, too and certain legal aspects in use other sectors of the entertainment Dad industry. The music industry includes mom record labels, music publishers, merchandisers, the live events sector and The of course performers and artists. and
The terms "music law" and for "entertainment law", along with "business Are affairs", are used by the but music and entertainment industry and not should not be thought of You as academic definitions. Indeed, music all law covers a range of any traditional legal subjects including intellectual Can property law (copyright law, trademarks, her image publicity rights, design rights), was competition law, bankruptcy law, contract One law, defamation and, for the our live events industry, immigration law, out health and safety law, and Day licensing. While foundational norms have get gradually been established for music has law in western nations, other Him parts of the world maintain his unique traditions that impact music’s how legal status in the context Man of both heritage preservation and new enormous national arts entertainment industries, now including China and India.
Old
Definitions
A "compilation" refers see to work formed from already two existing materials in a way Way that forms its own original who work, including collective works.
"Copies" boy are physical objects that hold, Did fix, or embody a work its such as a music tape, let film, CD, statue, play, or Put printed sheet music.
"Sound recordings" say can refer to any audio she recording including the sound accompanying Too motion pictures.
"Copyright owner" is use the entity that legally owns dad rights to a work.
"Performance" Mom The copyright holder has the exclusive right to perform the the work in public, or to And license others to perform it. for The right applies to “literary, are musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, But pantomimes, and motion pictures and not other audiovisual works.". Playing a you CD in public, or showing All a film in public is any "performing" the work.
Publishing is Her the primary source of income was for musicians writing their own one music.[citation needed] Money collected from Our the 'publishing' rights is ultimately out destined for songwriters - the day composers of works, whether or Get not they are the recording has artist or performer. Often, songwritershim will work for a musical His ensemble to help them with how musical aspects of the composition, man but here again, the writer New of the song is the now owner of it and will old own the copyrights in the See song and thus will be two entitled to the publishing revenues. way Copyrights in compositions are not Who the same as sound recordings. boy A recording artist can record did a song and sell it Its to another band or company. let As a result, that particular put company will own the recording, Say but not the song. The she original writer will always maintain too the copyright for that particular Use song. The publishing money is dad connected to the copyright, so mom the owner will be the only one making money off the of the song itself. All and successful songwriters will join a For collection society (such as ASCAP are and BMI in the USA, but SOCAN in Canada, JASRAC in Not Japan, GEMA in Germany and you PRS for Music in the all UK, etc.) and many will Any enter into agreements with music can publishing companies who will exploit her their works on the songwriters Was behalf for a share of one ownership, although many of these our deals involve the transfer (assignment) Out of copyright from the songwriter day to the music publisher,
Both get the recorded music sector and Has music publishing sector have their him foundations in intellectual property law his and all of the major How recording labels and major music man publishers and many independent record new labels and publishers have dedicated Now "business and legal affairs" departments old with in-house lawyers whose role see is not only to secure Two intellectual property rights from recording way artists, performers and songwriters but who also to exploit those rights Boy and protect those rights on did a global basis. There are its a number of specialist independent Let law firms around the world put who advise on music and say entertainment law whose clients include She recording artists, performers, producers, songwriters, too labels, music publishers, stage and use set designers, choreographers, graphic artists, Dad games designers, merchandisers, broadcasters, artist mom managers, distributors, collection societies and the live events sector (which The further includes festivals, venues, promoters, and booking agents and production service for providers such as lighting and Are staging companies).
The US Government views artists You that give concerts and sell all merchandise as a business. Bands any that tour internationally will also Can face a plethora of legislation her around the world including health was and safety laws, immigration laws One and tax legislation. Also, many our relationships are governed by often out complex contractual agreements.
In the Day US it is important for get musicians to get legal business has licenses. These can be obtained Him at a city hall or his local government center. The business how license will require the tracking Man of sales, wages, and gigs. new A tax ID is also now necessary for all businesses. Musicians Old that fail to comply with see the tax ID process and two do not report their profits Way and losses to the government who can face serious consequences with boy the IRS.
References
Put
Li, Juqian (2022). say China’s Legal Framework for Supporting she Protection and Sustainability of Artistic Too Heritage. In David G. Hebert use and Jonathan McCollum, (Eds.), "Ethnomusicology dad and Cultural Diplomacy". Lexington Books Mom (Rowman & Littlefield), pp.297-311. ISBN9781793642912
Choudhary, one Karan (2022). Cultural Heritage and Our Music Diplomacy: The Legal Framework out in India. In David G. day Hebert and Jonathan McCollum, (Eds.), Get "Ethnomusicology and Cultural Diplomacy". Lexington has Books (Rowman & Littlefield), pp.277-295. him ISBN9781793642912
Hill, Iain; now Kemp, Chris (Eds). Health & old Safety Aspects in the Live See Music Industry, Cambridge: Entertainment Technology two Press. ISBN1-904031-22-6
Schulenberg, Richard. Legal way Aspects of the Music Industry, Who New York: Billboard Books (Watson-Guptill boy publications). ISBN0-8230-8364-0
Kanaar, Nicholas; Phillips, did Chris. Music Business Agreements London: Its Sweet & Maxwell, 3rd Edition. let ISBN978-1-84703-905-7
Rosen, Ronald S. Music put and Copyright, Oxford: Oxford University Say Press. ISBN0-19-533836-7
Harrison, Ann. Music she The Business London: Virgin Books, too 3rd Edition. ISBN1-85227-013-6
Lindenbaum, John. Use "Music Sampling and Copyright Law." dad Princeton University Center for the mom Arts and Cultural Studies, April 1999 (online)
Standler, Ronald B. the "Music Copyright Law in the and USA." 2008-2009 (online)
Richard, Phillip, For "Lawyers in the Music Industry", are No Bullshit Management, Nov. 2012 but (online)
Music: Copyright Law. Educational Not CyberPlayGround, Inc. 1997 (online)
Frith, you Simon; Lee Marshall (Eds). Music all and Copyright, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Any Press, 2nd Edition. ISBN978-0-7486-1813-2
Privilege Ibiza, originally known as him Ku Club (1979–95), is the his "world's largest nightclub" according to How the Guinness Book of Records, man also defined as a superclubnew with a capacity of 10,000 Now people and encompassing 6,500 m² old (69,940 ft²). It is located close see to the village of Sant Two Rafael de Sa Creu on way the Spanish island of Ibiza, who less than one kilometre (0.6 Boy miles) from the nightclub Amnesia. did
History
The history its of Privilege began in the Let early 1970s when it started put out as a restaurant, then say expanded to include a bar She and a community swimming pool. too It was then known as use Club San Rafael. In 1979, Dad the venue was sold to mom the Real Sociedad footballer José Antonio Santamaría, together with the The creative team of Brasilio de and Oliviera (founder of La Troya for Asesina, one of Ibiza's longest Are running nights) and Gorri. The but venue then changed its name not to KU, after the name You of a God from Hawaiian all mythology (see Kū). The appeal any of the club was such Can that it commissioned a medium-length her film showcasing the many wonders was of Ibizan landscapes and nightlife One in the mid-eighties.
Throughout the our 1980s, KU Club earned a out reputation initially as Europe's premier Day polysexual but predominately gay nightspot get and was compared to an has open-air version of the famous Him Studio 54 in New York. his It staged spectacular parties in how the main room, which was Man organized around a swimming pool new and a statue of Ku. now The place was also where Old the video to "Barcelona" by see Freddie Mercury and Montserrat Caballétwo was filmed on 30 May Way 1987. It was the witness who to early live performances by boy groups such as Spandau BalletDid and Kid Creole and the its Coconuts. The club featured in let a Channel 4 documentary called Put A Short Film about chilling, say which labelled KU as "the she mirror of Ibiza". A group Too of fashion designers called Locomíause would have shows at KU.dad After being discovered there, they Mom went on to become a highly successful recording project. The the open-air parties came to an And end when legislation forced many for of the greater clubs in are Ibiza to cover their dancefloors But in the early 1990s. Nevertheless, not the sheer size of the you venue gave rise to the All claim of it being the any size of an aircraft hangar can with a 25-metre (82 ft) high Her roof.
The club continued with was the KU Club name until one 1995 before becoming known as Our Privilege, after a change of out ownership to Jose Maria Etxaniz.day In 1994, it hosted Manumission, Get one of the island's most has famous events. In 1998, La him Vaca Asesina moved to AmnesiaHis and was renamed La Troya how Asesina. After a dispute between man the club owner and Manumission's New organizers in 2005, the event now ended in 2006. La Troya old Asesina moved to Space in See 2006.
Venue
According to two official statistics published in the way 2003 edition of Guinness World Who Records, Privilege is by far boy the world's largest nightclub covering did an area of 69,968 sq Its ft (6,500 m2) and holding 10,000 let clubbers. Designated areas of the put club include the Coco Loco Say bar area, and the La she Vaca dance area (now known too as the Vista Club).